2&#39; FLUORO-MODIFIED RNAs AS IMMUNOSTIMULATORS

ABSTRACT

Methods of inhibiting the growth of cells or inducing cell death by contacting the cells with or introducing into the cells a composition including a 5′ triphosphate, 2′ fluoro-modified pyrimidine non-linear single stranded RNA at least 17 nucleotides long with a least 3 base pairings or a 5′ triphosphate, 2′ fluoro-modified double stranded RNA at least 17 base pairs long in an amount effective to inhibit cell growth, induce cell death or induce cytokine production by the cells. The methods also include administration of the compositions to a subject. The subject may have a proliferative disorder or infectious disease and administration of the compositions provided herein may treat the disorder or disease.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This patent application is a continuation application of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 14/783,717, filed Oct. 9, 2015, which is a nationalstage filing under 35 U.S.C. 371 of International Application No.PCT/US2014/033518, filed Apr. 9, 2014, which claims the benefit ofpriority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/810,073, filedApr. 9, 2013, each of which are incorporated herein by reference intheir entirety.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was made with United States government support awarded bythe National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute grantnumber R011CA129190. The United States may have certain rights in thisinvention.

SEQUENCE LISTING

This application is being filed electronically via EFS-Web and includesan electronically submitted Sequence Listing in .txt format. The .txtfile contains a sequence listing entitled“2014-04-09_5667-00163_ST25.txt” created on Apr. 9, 2014 and is 4kilobytes in size. The Sequence Listing contained in this .txt file ispart of the specification and is hereby incorporated by reference hereinin its entirety.

INTRODUCTION

Pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) are a pivotal component of bothanti-viral and anti-bacterial immunity. These receptors recognizestructurally diverse molecules associated with pathogens and stimulatethe host immune system against infection (Kawai and Akira (2007) SeminImmunol 19: 24-32). Viral or bacterial RNAs can be recognized as immunestimuli by multiple families of PRRs in the infected cells. Retinoicacid inducible gene-I (RIG-I), melanoma differentiation associatedgene-5 (MDA-5) and RNA-activated protein kinase R (PKR) are cytoplasmicdouble-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-sensing PRRs, while toll-like receptors(TLRs) 3 and 7/8 are localized in endoplasmic compartments and areactivated by dsRNA and single-stranded RNA (ssRNA), respectively (Beschet al., (2009) J Clin Invest 119: 2399-2411). PRR signaling,irrespective of which PRR is activated, culminates in the activation ofMAP kinases, NF—KB and IFN regulatory factors and engenders theproduction of inflammatory cytokines (e.g., interleukin (IL)-8) and typeI IFN (Tormo et al., (2009) Cancer Cell 16: 103-114).

In addition to anti-infectious immunity, activation of RNA-sensing PRRscan mediate programmed cell death in infected cells, in which case thehost can efficiently block viral replication by sacrificing infectedcells. Transfection of synthetic long dsRNA (e.g., polyI:C) or shortRNAs containing 5′ triphosphates (5′ppp) induces type I IFN productionand apoptosis of various tumor cells including melanoma, ovarian cancer,acute myeloid leukemia and breast cancer through multiple RNA-sensingPRRs. This PRR-mediated apoptosis can enhance the susceptibility ofcancer cells to the cytotoxicity of NK cells and phagocytosis bydendritic cells (DCs), suggesting that PRR-mediated cancer cellapoptosis is pro-immunogenic and can enhance anti-tumor immunity. Onecaveat of PRR-activating RNA therapeutics is the short half-life of RNAin vivo because RNA is extremely sensitive to serum nucleases. Chemicalmodifications have been widely used to increase the stability andnuclease resistance of RNAs. RNA ribose modifications, i.e., 2′fluoro(2′F) and 2′-O-methyl (2′O-Me), are the most common type of RNAmodification. These ribose-modified RNAs, however, have been shown toevade immune activation by inhibiting the activation of multipleRNA-sensing PRRs. These limitations hamper the development ofPRR-activating RNA therapeutics.

SUMMARY

The Examples demonstrate that transfection of human melanoma cells with2′fluoro (2′F) modified 5′ triphosphate (5′ppp) single-stranded RNAs(ssRNAs) induces apoptosis and interferon-β, but not tumor necrosisfactor-α production, comparable to transfection with conventional RIG-Iagonists. These 2′F 5′ppp ssRNAs elicit RIG-I- and MAVS-mediatedapoptosis in a length- and secondary structure-dependent manner.

In one aspect, compositions capable of inducing programmed cell deathand cytokine or chemokine production after administration to cells areprovided. The compositions include a 5′ triphosphate, 2′ fluoro-modifiedpyrimidine non-linear single stranded RNA at least 17 nucleotides longwith a least 3 base pairings or a 5′ triphosphate, 2′ fluoro-modifiedpyrimidine double stranded RNA at least 17 base pairs long.

In another aspect, methods of inhibiting the growth of cells or inducingcell death are also provided. The cells are contacted with thecompositions provided herein in an amount effective to inhibit thegrowth of the cells, induce programmed cell death or induce cytokineproduction by the cells.

In a still further aspect, methods of treating subjects with aproliferative disorder, infection, e.g. a viral infection, or in need ofimmunostimulation are provided. The compositions provided herein may beadministered to the subject in an amount effective to treat the disorderin the subject. The compositions of the invention must be delivered tothe cells or tissues of the subject and the composition will inhibit thegrowth of the cells or tissue, induce programmed cell death or inducecytokine production by the cells. The subjects may have a cancer and the5′ppp 2′F RNAs may be used to induce programmed cell death of the cancercells.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is a set of schematic structures of RNAs used in this study andFIG. 1B is a graph demonstrating the cytotoxicity of 5′ppp 2′F RNAaptamers in a sequence independent manner. FIG. 1A is a set of schematicsecondary structures of 5′ppp 2′F RNA aptamers as predicted with thelowest free energy (ΔG) computed by mfold(http://mfold.rna.albany.edu/?q=mfold/RNA-Folding-Form). FIG. 1B is agraph showing the percent growth inhibition of a cell line aftertransfection with the indicated aptamer. Human melanoma cell line,WM266-4 cells were either treated with transfection reagent alone (mock)or transfected with 0.5 μg/ml of RNA aptamers Human melanoma cell line,WM266-4 cells were either treated with transfection reagent alone (mock)or transfected with 0.5 μg/ml of RNA aptamers 10F (SEQ ID NO: 4),vWF9.14T10 (SEQ ID NO: 6), vWF9.14T17 (SEQ ID NO: 7), vWF9.14T13 (SEQ IDNO: 9), vWF9.14T14 (SEQ ID NO: 8), FXII-51 (SEQ ID NO: 10), EGFR-E07(SEQ ID NO: 11) or GPNMB (SEQ ID NO: 5). LO-1 is represented by SEQ IDNO: 12 and Poly(U)30 is represented by SEQ ID NO: 13. All RNAs contain5′ppp and 2′F pyrimidine. The growth inhibition was measured by an MTTassay.

FIG. 2A-FIG. 2D demonstrates that cytoplasmic delivery of 5′ppp 2′F RNAaptamers into human melanoma cells leads to growth inhibition andinduction of apoptosis. FIG. 2A is a set of FACS plots showing inductionof apoptosis. WM266-4 cells were incubated with either liposome (DF)alone or 5′ppp 2′F 10F-liposome complex (10F/DF). At 5 h afterincubation, cells were replenished with fresh culture medium. Cells werethen incubated for an additional 48 hours, harvested and analyzed forcell death. FIG. 2B is a set of Western blots showing activation ofcaspases and PARP after transfection. WM266-4 cells were eithermock-treated, treated with the 5′ppp 2′F 10F without the transfectionreagent, or with the 5′ppp 2′F 10E-transfection reagent complex at theindicated concentrations (1 μg/ml or 0.5 μg/ml). The activation ofcaspase-7, -9, and PARP was assessed by western blot using antibodiesspecific to the activated (cleaved) proteins (24 h after treatment).Staurosporine-treated cells were used as a positive control. FIG. 2C isa graph showing the percent growth inhibition after the indicatedtreatment. WM266-4 cells were electroporated with PBS (mock), polyI:C,5′ppp 2′F 10F or a 2′F pyrimidine nucleoside triphosphate mix (2′F NTP).The growth inhibition was assessed at 72 h after electroporation. FIG.2D is a set of Western blots showing expression of several proteinsafter the indicated treatments. WM266-4 cells were treated as in (FIG.2B), and the expression of RIG-I, MDA-5, and PKR was analyzed at 24hours after treatments. Note that β-tubulin levels (loading control)were reproducibly reduced in cells treated with 5′ppp 2′F 10F/DFcomplex. The data represent two individual experiments. Error bars areS.D.

FIG. 3A and FIG. 3B are a set of graphs showing that transfection of5′ppp 2′F ssRNAs does not stimulate TLR3 and TLR7. FIG. 3A shows thatTLR3 is not stimulated. The human TLR3 reporter cell,HEK-hTLR3-NFκB/SEAP was purchased from Invivogen. These cells werestably co-transfected with the human TLR3 gene and an inducible SEAP(secreted embryonic alkaline phosphatase) reporter gene into HEK293cells. The SEAP gene is placed under the control of NF-κB and AP-1.HEK-hTLR3-NFκB/SEAP cells were specifically stimulated with TLR3 ligandsincluding polyI:C and polyI:C-DF complex, but not with DF alone, 5′ppp2′F 10F-DF complexes and TLR7 agonist R848. SEAP gene expression wasmeasured using the SEAP detection media QUANTI-BLUE (Invivogen),according to the manufacturer's instructions. FIG. 3B is a graph showingthat TLR7 is not stimulated by the ssRNAs. Human TLR7-expressing HEK293cells were kindly provided by Dr. Todd Brennan (Duke University, Durham,N.C.). Treatment with R848 but not with polyI:C, polyI:C-DF and 5′ppp2′F 10F-DF complexes stimulated HEK-TLR7 cells to produce theinflammatory cytokine IL-8. The data represent the mean of twoexperiments. Error bars represent the S.D.

FIG. 4A-FIG. 4E are a set of data showing that 5′ppp 2′F ssRNA-inducedcell death and growth inhibition of melanoma cells are dependent oncytoplasmic RIG-I and MAVS. FIG. 4A is a set of western blots showingknockdown of the indicated proteins. WM266-4 cells were transfectedtwice at 2-day intervals with either control 5′OH siRNA or 5′OH siRNAsagainst PKR, RIG-I, MDA-5 and MAVS. The knockdown efficiency wasassessed 4 days after siRNA transfections by western blot using specificantibodies (as indicated; upper panel). Probing of the same membranewith either actin- or β-tubulin-specific antibodies served as loadingcontrols (lower panel). FIG. 4B and FIG. 4C are a set of graphs showingthat MAVS and RIG-I are required for cell growth inhibition and cytokineproduction by ssRNA. WM266-4 cells treated as in (FIG. 4A) were eitherfurther treated with transfection reagent alone (mock), or10F-transfection reagent complex (10F) (0.125 μg/ml) at 24 hours afterthe last siRNA transfection. The growth inhibition (FIG. 4B and IFNβproduction (FIG. 4C) were analyzed at 72 h after 10F treatment. FIG. 4Dand FIG. 4E are a set of graphs showing the ability to partially reversethe effect of the ssRNA by treatment with a phosphatase todephosphorylate the ssRNA. 5′ppp 2′F 10F (FIG. 4D) and 5′ppp 2′F 9.14T10(FIG. 4E) was dephosphorylated by incubation with bacterial alkalinephosphatase (BAP). In addition, 5′OH-2′F 9.14T10 (Syn9.14T10) wasnon-enzymatically synthesized to completely remove the 5′ppp. Theapoptosis, cytotoxic effect and IFNβ expression of WM266-4 cells treatedwith mock, 1° F. or dephosphorylated 10F (0.125 μg/ml each) wasdetermined by flow cytometry after staining cells with Annexin V-PE, MTTassay and IFNβ ELISA, respectively. The data represent two individualexperiments. Error bar represent the S.D.; *P<0.05.

FIG. 5A and FIG. 5B are a set of graphs showing IFNβ-dependent andindependent mechanisms contribute to 5′ppp 2′F ssRNA-induced growthinhibition of human cancer cells. FIG. 5A is a graph showing the growthinhibition is mediated at least in part by IFN-β. The human melanomacell line, WM266-4 and human dermal fibroblasts were transfected with10F or mock transfected in the presence (empty bars) and absence (filledbars) of B18R, the vaccinia virus-encoded type I IFN decoy receptor. Inparallel, the culture supernatants of cells transfected with either mockor 10F were harvested after 24 h. Fresh melanoma cells and dermalfibroblasts were incubated for 72 h with the culture supernatants in thepresence and absence of B18R. The growth inhibition of WM266-4 cellstreated with IFNβ in the presence and absence of B18R was used as anexperimental control. FIG. 5B is a graph showing that not all cells aresusceptible to ssRNA mediated growth inhibition. A variety of humancancer cell lines and normal human cells were either transfected with5′ppp 2′F 10F (0.5 μg/ml) or treated with transfection reagent only(mock), and the growth inhibition relative to untreated cells wasanalyzed at 72 h after transfection by an MTT assay. Error barsrepresent the S.D. *P<0.05 (5′ppp 2′F 10F vs Mock).

FIG. 6A-FIG. 6D are a set of graphs showing that 2′F modificationincreases nuclease resistance, cytotoxicity and inflammatory cytokineinduction of immunostimulatory 5′ppp ssRNAs. FIG. 6A is a graph showingability of various modified ssRNAs to inhibit the growth of cells overconcentration ranges. WM266-4 cells were treated with transfectionreagent alone (mock) or the complex of transfection reagent and 5′ppp10F containing 2′F pyrimidine, 2′OMe pyrimidine or unmodified pyrimidine(2′OH) at various concentrations. The viral dsRNA analog PolyI:C wasused as an experimental control. Growth inhibition was assessed at 72 hpost treatments using the MTT assay. FIG. 6B is a set of graphs showingcytokine induction after treatment with the indicated ssRNAs. WM266-4cells were either treated with transfection reagent alone (mock) or thecomplex of transfection reagent and 5′ppp 2′OH 10F, 5′ppp 2′F 10F, 5′ppp2′OMe 10F or poly I:C (0.5 μg/ml each). The secretion of IFNβ and IL-8by the melanoma cells was analyzed at 24 h after treatment by ELISA. Thedata represent the mean of three experiments. Error bars represent theS.D.; *P<0.05 (5′ppp 2′F 10F vs 5′ppp 2′OH 10F); P<0.001 (5′ppp 2′OMe10F vs 5′ppp 2′OH 10F). FIG. 6C is a photograph of a gel showing theserum stability of 2′F and 2′OH ssRNAs. 5′ppp 2′OH 10F and 5′ppp 2′F 10Fwere incubated in 10% fetal bovine serum at 37° C. for 0, 5 min, 10 min,1 h, 3 h, 6 h, 12 h or 24 h and collected at each time point. RNAs wereanalyzed on 12% polyacrylamide gels. FIG. 6D is a photograph of a gelshowing the cellular stability of 2′F and 2′OH ssRNAs. WM266.4 cellswere transfected with 5′ppp 2′OH 10F, 5′ppp 2′F 10F or mock. At 4 h, 8,12 and 24 h after transfection, total RNAs were isolated and cellular10F RNA levels were analyzed by RT-PCR. Actin mRNA levels were used asan internal control. The data represent three individual experiments.

FIG. 7 is a set of FACS analysis plots showing the induction ofapoptosis by 5′ppp-2′F small dsRNA after transfection of melanoma cells.2′F modification may improve anti-cancer activity of conventional RIG-Iagonist 5′ppp dsRNA. Transfection of 5′ppp-2′F short dsRNA increasedapoptosis of human melanoma cells as compared to unmodified 5′ppp-2′OHdsRNA.

FIG. 8A is a set of structures and FIGS. 8B and 8C are graphs showingthat the distance between 5′ppp and internal stem structure of 5′ppp 2′FssRNAs is inversely correlated to cytotoxic effect and IFN-β expressionin human melanoma cells. FIG. 8A shows the mfold-predicted structures of5′ppp 2′F stem-loop ssRNAs consisting of 5′overhang (Motif 1 (SEQ ID NO:14) and 1A (SEQ ID NO: 15)), blunt end (Motif 2 (SEQ ID NO: 16)) and3′overhang (Motif 3 (SEQ ID NO: 17)). Only one secondary structure waspredicted for individual ssRNA by mfold with negative ΔG. FIG. 8B andFIG. 8C are graphs showing the effect of transfection of melanoma cellswith each of the indicated ssRNA on growth inhibition and cytokineproduction. WM266-4 cells were transfected with Motif 1, Motif 1A, Motif2, Motif 3 or 10F at the indicated concentrations. Cytotoxicity (FIG.8B) and IFNβ production (FIG. 8C) by the cells were evaluated by MTTassay and IFNβ ELISA, respectively. The data represent the mean of threeexperiments. Error bars represent the S.D.; *P<0.05, compared to 10F;**P<0.05, Motif 1 vs Motif 1A.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Compositions capable of inducing programmed cell death, type Iinterferon (interferon-(3) and inflammatory cytokine production by cellsor activation of Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRR) in cells areprovided and described herein. The compositions include a 5′triphosphate, 2′ fluoro-modified pyrimidine non-linear single-strandedRNA (ssRNA) or double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) at least 17 nucleotides long.As described in the Examples, multiple 2′F RNA aptamers harboring a5′ppp that specifically binds to target molecules in the cells weregenerated. Surprisingly, intra-cytoplasmic delivery of these RNAaptamers elicits potent cytotoxicity and type I IFN production by humanmelanoma, prostate cancer and glioblastoma cells. This RNAaptamer-mediated cell death and IFN production is specific to cancercells and did not inhibit cell growth of various non-cancer cells otherthan melanocytes. Furthermore, these effects are dependent on 5′ppp, 2′Fmodification and the secondary structures of the RNA aptamers. Theseeffects were demonstrated to be sequence independent. Finally, the 5′ppp2′F RNA aptamer-induced melanoma cell death is dependent on theactivation of cytoplasmic pattern recognition receptors (e.g., RIG-I)and the downstream adaptor molecule, mitochondrial antiviral-signalingprotein (MAVS).

As noted the RNAs are suitably at least 17 nucleotides long and aresuitably no more than 200 nucleotides long. The RNAs may be between 17,18, 19, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, or 65 nucleotides and 200,180, 160, 150, 140, 130, 120, 110, 100 or 90 nucleotides long. In theExamples at least one 2′ Fluoro modification in the RNA was needed toinhibit growth of cells. Suitably, the 2′ fluoro-modification is presenton at least 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% or more of thepyrimidines, suitably the modified pyrimidines are uridines. In oneembodiment, all of the uridines in the RNA are 2′ fluoro-modified. Inanother embodiment, all of the pyrimidines in the RNA are 2′fluoro-modified. The 5′end of the RNA must be a 5′ triphosphate for thecomposition to function in the methods.

In the Examples, linear RNAs were not effective at inhibiting cellgrowth, while those with secondary structure were capable of inhibitingcell growth. Thus, suitably the RNAs in the composition form a secondarystructure with a double-stranded portion. Suitably, the RNA is capableof forming single or multiple stem loop structures. The double-strandedportion of the RNA should include at least 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 25 or more basepairs. The double stranded portion of the RNA is suitably positionedwithin 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 nucleotides ofor at the 5′ end of the RNA. Double-stranded RNA with 2′fluoro and 5′triphosphate are also useful in the methods of immunostimulation andinduction of programmed cell death described herein. The dsRNA shouldalso be between 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, or 65base pairs and 200, 180, 160, 150, 140, 130, 120, 110, 100 or 90 basepairs long.

The compositions described herein may also include a cytoplasmicdelivery mechanism. The RNAs in the compositions must be delivered intothe cells or produced within the cells to function. As shown in theExamples, extracellular administration of the RNA containingcompositions without a delivery mechanism resulted in a lack ofeffectiveness. Such delivery mechanisms are available to those skilledin the art and include all gene delivery mechanisms including but notlimited to synthetic polymers (such as those used for siRNA delivery),cell-penetrating peptides (such as VP16), nanoparticles, viral orliposomal delivery to the cytoplasm of cells (lipofection), delivery viaa gene gun, or may include transfection, nucleofection orelectroporation. The cytoplasmic delivery mechanisms may be targeted toonly deliver the compositions to cells in which cell growth inhibitionor induction of programmed cell death is desired. For example, thecellular delivery mechanism may specifically target the RNAs to cancercells or virally infected cells. The compositions may be targeted tocells for uptake by receptor-mediated endocytosis as well. As shown inthe examples, most non-cancerous cells are not susceptible to these RNAsso targeting may not be needed in some systems, but may be useful toobtain sufficient delivery to the target cells. In addition, cells couldbe genetically engineered to express the RNA compositions describedherein. The RNAs could be operably connected to a promoter, such as aninducible promoter, to allow expression of the RNA only upon properstimulation.

The compositions described herein may also be used to inhibit cancercell growth or induce programmed cell death of cancer cells which mayresult in treating cancer in a subject. The compositions may also beuseful in treating other non-cancerous proliferative disorders or intreating infected cells, such as cells infected with a virus or otherintracellular pathogen. The compositions provided herein may also beadministered as an adjuvant to stimulate an immune response to anantigen, pathogen or cancer cell. Subjects that may be administered thecompositions described herein include, but are not limited to mammals,domesticated animals and humans and may specifically include dogs, cats,fish, chickens, cows, pigs, sheep, goats.

Along these lines, methods of inhibiting the growth of cells or inducingprogrammed cell death using the compositions comprising the ssRNAs ordsRNAs described herein are also provided. The methods includecontacting cells with the compositions or alternatively administeringthe compositions to subjects in an amount effective to inhibit thegrowth of cells, induce programmed cell death of cells or increaseinflammatory cytokine production by cells. The inhibition of growth ofthe cells or induction of cell death is independent of the nucleotidesequence of the RNA, is partially dependent on induction of type Iinterferons (IFN-β), activation of pattern recognition receptors (RIG-I)and induction of MAVS, independently. The type I interferons (IFN-β) mayhave autocrine or paracrine effects on cells. Other cytokines such asIL-8 are also induced in the cells treated with the RNA compositionsdescribed herein. The cells may be melanoma cells, or other cancercells, including but not limited to brain, prostate, ovarian, renal,lung, liver, colorectal and breast cancer cells or leukemia or lymphomacells.

Suitably, the composition is delivered to the cytoplasm of the cell. Thecompositions may be delivered through the cytoplasmic deliverymechanisms described above and include but are not limited to liposomes,synthetic polymers, cell penetrating peptides, nanoparticles, viralencapsulation, receptor-mediated endocytosis, electroporation or anyother means to deliver the composition to the cytoplasm of the cells.

Cells may be contacted with the composition directly or indirectly invivo, in vitro, or ex vivo. Contacting encompasses administration to acell, tissue, mammal, patient, or human. Further, contacting a cellincludes adding the composition to a cell culture with a cytoplasmicdelivery mechanism or introducing the composition into the cytoplasm ofthe cell via any available means. Other suitable methods may includeintroducing or administering the composition to a cell, tissue, mammal,or patient using appropriate procedures and routes of administration asdefined below.

Administration of the compositions described herein may inhibit thegrowth of cancer cells or treat cancer. This effect may be due to ageneral immunostimulatory effect of administration of the compositionsor by programmed cell death initiated by contact with the compositions.The administration of the compositions described herein may inhibit thegrowth of the cells by 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80% ormore as compared to control treated cells. The administration of thecompositions described herein may also induce cell death, suitablyprogrammed cell death in 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%,50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70% or more than 75% of the treated cells.Programmed cell death includes any means of cell death mediated by anintracellular program and includes, but is not limited of apoptosis,autophagy, necroptosis, anoikis, or other non-apoptotic forms ofprogrammed cell death. Suitably, administration to a subject orcontacting cells with the compositions described herein increases theamount of type I interferon (IFN a or IFN 0) and IL-8 produced by thecells. Suitably the cytokine are increased 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, or morefold as compared to the production of these cytokines in untreatedcontrol cells.

The compositions described herein may be administered to a subject totreat cancer in the subject. Treating cancer includes, but is notlimited to, reducing the number of cancer cells or the size of a tumorin the subject, reducing progression of a cancer to a more aggressiveform, reducing proliferation of cancer cells (inhibiting the growth of)or reducing the speed of tumor growth, killing of cancer cells (via anymeans), reducing metastasis of cancer cells or reducing the likelihoodof recurrence of a cancer in a subject. Treating a subject as usedherein refers to any type of treatment that imparts a benefit to asubject afflicted with a disease or at risk of developing the disease,including improvement in the condition of the subject (e.g., in one ormore symptoms), delay in the progression of the disease, delay the onsetof symptoms or slow the progression of symptoms, etc.

The compositions may be used to make pharmaceutical compositions.Pharmaceutical compositions comprising the RNAs and compositionsdescribed above and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier are provided.A pharmaceutically acceptable carrier is any carrier suitable for invivo administration. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable carrierssuitable for use in the composition include, but are not limited to,water, buffered solutions, glucose solutions, oil-based or bacterialculture fluids. Additional components of the compositions may suitablyinclude, for example, excipients such as stabilizers, preservatives,diluents, emulsifiers and lubricants. Examples of pharmaceuticallyacceptable carriers or diluents include stabilizers such ascarbohydrates (e.g., sorbitol, mannitol, starch, sucrose, glucose,dextran), proteins such as albumin or casein, protein-containing agentssuch as bovine serum or skimmed milk and buffers (e.g., phosphatebuffer). Especially when such stabilizers are added to the compositions,the composition is suitable for freeze-drying or spray-drying. Thecomposition may also be emulsified.

The compositions described herein may also be combined with achemotherapeutic or other therapy for treatment of a disease orcondition or in conjunction with an antigen to stimulate a moreeffective immune response against the antigen or a pathogen comprisingthe antigen. An antigen includes any peptide, carbohydrate or lipid towhich an immune response can be generated. In particular the antigen iscapable of stimulating a B cell or T cell immune response such that amemory response is generated. The compositions may be administered inany order, at the same time or as part of a unitary composition. Thecomposition described herein and the therapeutic may be administeredsuch that one is administered before the other with a difference inadministration time of 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, 8 hours, 12 hours, 16hours, 20 hours, 1 day, 2 days, 4 days, 7 days, 2 weeks, 4 weeks ormore.

An effective amount or a therapeutically effective amount as used hereinmeans the amount of the composition that, when administered to a subjectfor treating a state, disorder or condition, such as cancer, issufficient to effect a treatment (as defined above). The therapeuticallyeffective amount will vary depending on the composition, the disease andits severity and the age, weight, physical condition and responsivenessof the subject to be treated.

The compositions described herein may be administered by any means knownto those skilled in the art, including, but not limited to, oral,topical, intranasal, intraperitoneal, parenteral, intravenous,intracranial, intratumoral, intramuscular, subcutaneous, intrathecal,transcutaneous, nasopharyngeal, or transmucosal absorption. Thus thecompositions may be formulated as an ingestable, injectable, topical orsuppository formulation. The compositions may also be delivered with ina lipoplex, polyplex, target-specific nanoparticle or time-releasevehicle. Administration of the compositions to a subject in accordancewith the invention appears to exhibit beneficial effects in adose-dependent manner. Thus, within broad limits, administration oflarger quantities of the composition is expected to achieve increasedbeneficial biological effects than administration of a smaller amount.Moreover, efficacy is also contemplated at dosages below the level atwhich toxicity is seen.

It will be appreciated that the specific dosage administered in anygiven case will be adjusted in accordance with the compositions beingadministered, the disease to be treated or inhibited, the condition ofthe subject, and other relevant medical factors that may modify theactivity of the composition or the response of the subject, as is wellknown by those skilled in the art. For example, the specific dose for aparticular subject depends on age, body weight, general state of health,diet, the timing and mode of administration, the rate of excretion,medicaments used in combination and the severity of the particulardisorder to which the therapy is applied. Dosages for a given patientcan be determined using conventional considerations, such as by means ofan appropriate conventional pharmacological or prophylactic protocol.

The maximal dosage for a subject is the highest dosage that does notcause undesirable or intolerable side effects. The number of variablesin regard to an individual prophylactic or treatment regimen is large,and a considerable range of doses is expected. The route ofadministration will also impact the dosage requirements. It isanticipated that dosages of the composition will reduce symptoms of thecondition at least 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% or 100%compared to pre-treatment symptoms or symptoms is left untreated. It isspecifically contemplated that pharmaceutical preparations andcompositions may palliate or alleviate symptoms of the disease withoutproviding a cure, or, in some embodiments, may be used to cure thedisease or disorder.

Suitable effective dosage amounts for administering the compositions maybe determined by those of skill in the art, but typically range fromabout 1 microgram to about 100,000 micrograms per kilogram of bodyweight weekly, although they are typically about 1,000 micrograms orless per kilogram of body weight weekly. In some embodiments, theeffective dosage amount ranges from about 10 to about 10,000 microgramsper kilogram of body weight weekly. In another embodiment, the effectivedosage amount ranges from about 50 to about 5,000 micrograms perkilogram of body weight weekly. In another embodiment, the effectivedosage amount ranges from about 75 to about 1,000 micrograms perkilogram of body weight weekly. The effective dosage amounts describedherein refer to total amounts administered, that is, if more than onecomposition is administered, the effective dosage amounts correspond tothe total amount administered. The composition can be administered as asingle dose or as divided doses. For example, the composition may beadministered two or more times separated by 4 hours, 6 hours, 8 hours,12 hours, a day, two days, three days, four days, one week, two weeks,or by three or more weeks.

The present disclosure is not limited to the specific details ofconstruction, arrangement of components, or method steps set forthherein. The compositions and methods disclosed herein are capable ofbeing made, practiced, used, carried out and/or formed in various waysthat will be apparent to one of skill in the art in light of thedisclosure that follows. The phraseology and terminology used herein isfor the purpose of description only and should not be regarded aslimiting to the scope of the claims. Ordinal indicators, such as first,second, and third, as used in the description and the claims to refer tovarious structures or method steps, are not meant to be construed toindicate any specific structures or steps, or any particular order orconfiguration to such structures or steps. All methods described hereincan be performed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated hereinor otherwise clearly contradicted by context. The use of any and allexamples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”) provided herein, isintended merely to facilitate the disclosure and does not imply anylimitation on the scope of the disclosure unless otherwise claimed. Nolanguage in the specification, and no structures shown in the drawings,should be construed as indicating that any non-claimed element isessential to the practice of the disclosed subject matter. The useherein of the terms “including,” “comprising,” or “having,” andvariations thereof, is meant to encompass the elements listed thereafterand equivalents thereof, as well as additional elements. Embodimentsrecited as “including,” “comprising,” or “having” certain elements arealso contemplated as “consisting essentially of” and “consisting of”those certain elements.

Recitation of ranges of values herein are merely intended to serve as ashorthand method of referring individually to each separate valuefalling within the range, unless otherwise indicated herein, and eachseparate value is incorporated into the specification as if it wereindividually recited herein. For example, if a concentration range isstated as 1% to 50%, it is intended that values such as 2% to 40%, 10%to 30%, or 1% to 3%, etc., are expressly enumerated in thisspecification. These are only examples of what is specifically intended,and all possible combinations of numerical values between and includingthe lowest value and the highest value enumerated are to be consideredto be expressly stated in this disclosure. Use of the word “about” todescribe a particular recited amount or range of amounts is meant toindicate that values very near to the recited amount are included inthat amount, such as values that could or naturally would be accountedfor due to manufacturing tolerances, instrument and human error informing measurements, and the like. All percentages referring to amountsare by weight unless indicated otherwise.

No admission is made that any reference, including any non-patent orpatent document cited in this specification, constitutes prior art. Inparticular, it will be understood that, unless otherwise stated,reference to any document herein does not constitute an admission thatany of these documents forms part of the common general knowledge in theart in the United States or in any other country. Any discussion of thereferences states what their authors assert, and the applicant reservesthe right to challenge the accuracy and pertinence of any of thedocuments cited herein. All references cited herein are fullyincorporated by reference, unless explicitly indicated otherwise. Thepresent disclosure shall control in the event there are any disparitiesbetween any definitions and/or description found in the citedreferences.

The following examples are meant only to be illustrative and are notmeant as limitations on the scope of the invention or of the appendedclaims.

Examples Materials and Methods Cell Culture

WM266-4, WM115, SK-MEL-2 and normal human colon epithelial cells (allfrom ATCC, Manassas, Va.) were maintained in Eagle's Minimum EssentialMedium supplemented with 10% FBS, 1× Non-essential Amino Acid Solution,and 1 mM sodium pyruvate (all from Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.).MALME-3M, DU145, LNCaP, HeLa, Hs578T, HT1080, LN-229, A-172, human lungfibroblast and human bone marrow stromal cell (all from ATCC), Panc-1(gift from Dr. Rebekah White at Duke University, Durham, N.C.), normalhuman dermal fibroblast (Invitrogen) were maintained in Dulbecco'sModified Eagle's Medium (DMEM) (Invitrogen) supplemented with 10% FBS.SK-OV-3 (ATCC) was maintained in McCoy's 5A medium (Invitrogen) with 10%FBS. Xeno-43 (gift from Dr. Darell D. Bigner, Duke University) wasmaintained in Zinc Option Media (Invitrogen). Normal human epidermalmelanocytes (ATCC) were maintained in Dermal Cell Basal Medium (ATCC)supplemented with the Adult Melanocyte Growth Kit (ATCC). HPDE cells(gift from Dr. Rebekah White at Duke University) were maintained inKeratinocyte-SFM (Invitrogen). PC3, NCI-H1838 and peripheral bloodmononuclear cells (PBMCs) were maintained in RPMI 1640 (Invitrogen) with10% FBS, HEPES and 1 mM sodium pyruvate. Cells were incubated at 37° C.in a humidified atmosphere with 5% CO₂.

Generation of Immunostimulatory and Cytotoxic RNAs

All 2′F-modified and unmodified ssRNAs used in this study wereestablished by in vitro transcription from DNA templates using the Y639Fmutant T7 RNA polymerase, as previously described (Layzer and Sullenger(2007) Oligonucleotides 17: 1-11). Unmodified and 2′F-modifiedribonucleoside triphosphates were used at a 1 mM and 3 mM finalconcentration, respectively, in the in vitro transcription reaction.2′OMe-modified RNA was transcribed from DNA templates using theY639F/H784A double mutant T7 RNA polymerase (Padilla and Sousa (2002)Nucleic Acids Res 30: e138). Unmodified and 2′OMe-modifiedribonucleoside triphosphates were used at 3 mM in the in vitrotranscription reaction. The von Willebrand Factor-specific aptamer vWF9.14 derivatives, 9.14T10 and 9.14T17, were previously reported (Nimjeeet al. (2012) Mol Ther 20: 391-397). Aptamer E07 specifically binds tohuman epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) (Li et al. (2011) PLoS One6: e20299). The human melanocytic cell-targeting aptamer 10F has beenselected by ex vivo cell-based SELEX. The transmembrane glycoproteinNMB-specific aptamer GPNMB has been selected for affinity binding tohuman GPNMB by in vitro SELEX. The coagulation factor XII-specificaptamer FXII-51 was provided by Dr. Becky Smock (Duke University).PolyI:C was purchased from Invivogen, San Diego, Calif. 5′ppp-2′FPoly(U)30 and 5′OH-2′F 9.14T10 were non-enzymatically synthesized byTriLink, San Diego, Calif. siRNAs with 3′ TT overhangs for knockdownstudies were purchased from Invitrogen and had the guide strandsequences 5′-CCACCUUGAUGCCUGUGAA-3′ (for MAVS; SEQ ID NO: 1),5′-AUCACGGAUUAGCGACAAA-3′ (for RIG-I; SEQ ID NO: 2), and5′-GUAUCGUGUUAUUGGAUUA-3′ (for MDAS; SEQ ID NO: 3). The anti-PKR siRNAwas purchased as a pool of three target specific 19-25 nt siRNAs fromSanta Cruz Biotechnology (Dallas, Tex.). The sequences of the aptamersused in this study are provided in Table 1.

TABLE 1 5′ppp-2′F ssRNA sequences Aptamer Length TargetSequence (SEQ ID NO:) 10F 71 Melanoma/ GGGAGGACGAUGCGGUACCUGACAGCAUCUUmelanocyte GAUAAUGGUCCUACGGAGCCGUUCCAGACGA CUCGCCCGA (SEQ ID NO: 4)GPNMB 71 Glioblastoma GGGAGGACGAUGCGGGGAAGUACCCAAGGUCUGUGAACCCGUAACCAUGCGGCCCCAGACG ACUCGCCCGA (SEQ ID NO: 5) 9.14T10 60 vonGGGAGGUGGACGAACUGCCCUCAGCUACUUU Willebrand CAUGUUGCUGACGCACAGACGACUCGCUGFactor (vWF) (SEQ ID NO: 6) 9.14T17 40 vWFGGGAGGUGGACGAACUGCCCUACGCACAGAC GACUCGCUG (SEQ ID NO: 7) 9.14T14 28 vWFGGGAGGUCAGCUACUUUCAUGUUGCUGA (SEQ ID NO: 8) 9.14T13 51 vWFGGGAGGUGCCCUCAGCUACUUUCAUGUUGCU GACGCACAGACGACUCGCUG (SEQ ID NO: 9)FX11-51 51 Coagulation GGCUCGGCUGCCAGCAGGUCACGAGUCGCAG Factor 11CGACUCGCUGAGGAUCCGAG (SEQ ID NO: 10) E07 93 EGFRGGCGCUCCGACCUUAGUCUCUGUGCCGCUAU AAUGCACGGAUUUAAUCGCCGUAGAAAAGCAUGUCAAAGCCGGAACCGUGUAGCACAGCAG A (SEQ ID NO: 11) LO-1 40 NoneGGGGAAGUGAAUGGGUGAGGUGGAAGUGAG UGAGUGAAAU (SEQ ID NO: 12) Poly(U)30 30None UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU (SEQ ID NO: 13) Motif 1 29 NoneGGGAGGACGAUGCGGUACCUGACAGCAUC (SEQ ID NO: 14) Motif 1A 37 NoneGGGUAAGUGGGAGGACGAUGCGGUACCUGA CAGCAUC (SEQ ID NO: 15) Motif 2 23 NoneGGAUGCGGUACCUGACAGCAUCU (SEQ ID NO: 16) Motif 3 30 NoneGGAUGCGGUACCUGACAGCAUCUUGAAAUA (SEQ ID NO: 17)

Induction of Innate Immune Responses and Apoptosis by IntracellularDelivery of RNAs

For the intracellular delivery of immune stimulatory RNAs, RNAs weretransfected with the DharmaFECT® Duo liposomal transfection reagent(Thermo Scientific, Waltham, Mass.) at a transfection reagent (μl):RNA(μg) ratio of 3.75:1, according to the manufacturer's instructions.Unless otherwise stated, for the induction of innate immune responsesand apoptosis, immune stimulatory RNAs (500 ng/ml) were transfected into50 to 70% confluent cells. Cells were incubated with an RNA-transfectionagent complex for 5 h, followed by replenishment with fresh culturemedium. To electroporate cells, 1×10⁵ cells suspended in 200 μl Opti-MEMI (Invitrogen) were mixed with 1 μg of immune stimulatory RNAs or 5 μgof 2′Fluoro pyrimidine ribonucleoside triphosphate in 2-mm cuvettes andwere electroporated at 300 V for 500 μs using an Electro Square PoratorECM 830 (BTX, San Diego, Calif.). For the knockdown of RNA-sensing PRRs,cells were transfected with PRR-specific siRNAs (25 nM) twice at 2-dayintervals using DharmaFECT®-1 (Thermo Scientific). At 5 h after thesecond siRNA transfection, cells were harvested, replated into a 96-wellplate and incubated overnight. Cells were then treated with immunestimulatory RNA transfections. Staurosporine (2 μM) (Sigma, St Louis,Mo.) and recombinant human IFNβ (20 ng/ml) (PeproTech, Rocky Hill, N.J.)were used as positive controls of anti-melanoma cytotoxicity. B18R (100ng/ml) (eBioscience, San Diego, Calif.) was added directly to the growthmedia of cells to neutralize IFNβ.

Quantification of Growth Inhibition and Apoptosis

Growth inhibition relative to untreated cells was quantified at 72 hafter RNA transfection using an MTT Cell Proliferation Assay Kit (CaymanChemicals, Ann Arbor, Mich.), according to the manufacturer'sinstructions. The percent growth inhibition was calculated by using thefollowing equation: % growthinhibition=([O.D.]_(untreated)−[O.D.]_(treated))/[O.D.]_(untreated)×100.The induction of cell death was measured 48 h after RNA transfection byflow cytometry after staining with Annexin V-PE and 7-Aminoactinomycin D(7-AAD) using the PE Annexin V Apoptosis Detection Kit I (BDBiosciences, San Jose, Calif.) and analyzed using the CellQuest software(BD Biosciences).

Immunoblot Analysis and Antibodies

Cell lysates were prepared in 1×RIPA buffer (Sigma) in the presence ofthe complete protease inhibitor cocktail (Roche). Twelve to 20 μg ofprotein lysates were electrophoretically separated on 4-20%Mini-PROTEAN® TGX™ polyacrylamide gels (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.) andtransferred to polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membranes (PolyScreen®,PerkinElmer). After rinsing in TBST₂₀, membranes were blocked for 1 h in10% dry milk in TBTS₂₀, followed by overnight incubation with primaryantibodies anti-MAVS (1:200) (E-3; Santa Cruz), anti-RIG-I (1:500)(D14G6; Cell Signaling, Danvers, Mass.), anti-MDAS (1:500) (D74E4; CellSignaling), anti-PKR (1:350) (Catalog No 3072; Cell Signaling),anti-cleaved caspase-9 (1:500) (D2D4; Cell Signaling), anti-cleavedcaspase-7 (1:1,000) (D6H1; Cell Signaling), and anti-cleaved PARP(1:1,000) (D64E10; Cell Signaling). When different proteins weresequentially detected on the same membrane, membranes were treated for 8minutes with Restore Western Blot Stripping Buffer (Thermo Scientific),washed, blocked and probed again, as described above. Primary antibodieswere detected using horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated anti-rabbit(1:4,000) (NA934; GE Healthcare, Pittsburgh, Pa.) or anti-mouse(1:4,000) (NA931; GE Healthcare) secondary antibodies.Anti-β-tubulin-HRP (1:2,000) (9F3; Cell Signaling) and anti-3-actin(1:2000) (13E5; Cell Signaling) were used as loading controls. HRPactivity was visualized using the Immun-Star™ WesternC™Chemiluminescence Kit (Bio-Rad). In order to determine caspaseactivation and PRR expression, cell lysates were harvested at 24 h afterRNA transfection. In order to confirm siRNA-mediated knockdown of MAVSand PRRs, cell lysates were harvested 6 days after the firsttransfection of siRNA.

Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)

Cells were transfected with RNAs as described above. At 24 hours afterRNA transfection, culture supernatants were collected and stored at −80°C. for later analyses. The production of human IL-8 was analyzed with ahuman IL-8 ELISA kit (eBioscience). IFN-β production was determined witha human IFN-β ELISA kit (PBL Biomedical Laboratories, Piscataway, N.J.)by following the manufacturer's instructions.

Statistical Analysis

Two-tailed, paired Student's t test was applied for determiningstatistical significance. Confidence intervals equal to or less than0.05 constitute statistical significance.

Results Intracytoplasmic Delivery of 5′Ppp-2′F RNA Aptamers InhibitsMelanoma Cell Growth and Induces Programmed Cell Death in aSequence-Independent and Structure-Dependent Manner

Short, structured 5′ppp ssRNAs can be recognized by various RNA-sensingPRRs including RIG-I, PKR and TLR7 and induce type I IFN production bymultiple human cells (Diebold et al. (2004) Science 303: 1529-1531; Heilet al. (2004) Science 303: 1526-1529; Besch et al. (2009) J Clin Invest119: 2399-2411; Toroney et al. (2012) RNA 18: 1862-1874; and Schmidt etal. (2009) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106: 12067-12072). Interestingly,introduction of these 5′ppp ssRNAs into the cytoplasm could selectivelykill human melanoma cells in a RIG-I-dependent and IFN-independentmanner (Besch et al. (2009) J Clin Invest 119: 2399-2411). RNA aptamersare short ssRNAs (30-100 bases) that are often designed to bind toproteins. Most of the in vitro transcribed (IVT) RNA aptamers contain 2′ribose modifications, 5′ppp and a high degree of secondary structure,similar to PRR-activating ssRNAs except with nucleotide modifications.To test whether IVT RNA aptamers have anti-melanoma activity, wegenerated diverse RNA aptamers bearing 5′ppp and 2′F pyrimidines thatcan recognize different protein receptors (FIG. 1A, Table 1).Surprisingly, all IVT RNA aptamers except short RNA aptamer 9.14 T14tested in this study readily induced more than 80% growth inhibition ofhuman melanoma cells within 72 hours after liposomal transfection, atleast in part by the induction of apoptosis (FIG. 1B and FIG. 2A).Because this anti-melanoma effect was also seen with the various IVT RNAaptamers, but not with 5′ppp-2′F ssRNAs predicted to have minimalsecondary structures, such as Poly(U)30 and LO-1, we concluded that theinduction of anti-melanoma responses by 5′ppp-2′F RNA aptamers islargely dependent on the presence of folded secondary structure(s)rather than sequence.

Transfection with 5′Ppp-2′F RNA Aptamers can Induce Caspase-MediatedProgrammed Cell Death and Innate Immune Activation of Human MelanomaCells

5′ppp-2′F RNA aptamer-induced apoptosis is accompanied by the activationof caspase-9, an initiator caspase of the intrinsic apoptosis pathwayand its downstream effector molecules, including caspase-7 andpoly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) (FIG. 2B). Certain cationic liposomesused as non-viral vectors have been shown to induce apoptosis (Iwaoka etal. (2006) J Leukoc Biol 79: 184-191). RNA aptamer-mediated cell death,however, is not dependent on non-specific cytotoxicity associated withliposomal transfection because direct intra-cytoplasmic delivery of RNAaptamers by electroporation also inhibited melanoma cell growth (FIG.2C). 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) is a pyrimidine analog and broadly used as ananti-metabolic agent that induces apoptosis by inhibiting DNA and RNAsynthesis (Longley et al. (2003) Nat Rev Cancer 3: 330-338). One canargue that, unlike PRR-activating 5′ppp ssRNAs, RNA aptamers containing2′F pyrimidines may interfere with DNA and RNA synthesis within melanomacells, resulting in non-specific inhibition of melanoma cellproliferation. To test this possibility, human melanoma cells wereelectroporated with the 5′ppp-2′F RNA aptamer, 2′F pyrimidineribonucleoside triphosphate (2′F NTP) or PBS. The electroporation of RNAaptamers induced apoptosis of melanoma cells as efficiently as theliposomal transfection of these RNAs, however, the 2′F NTP transfectiondid not alter melanoma cell viability (FIG. 2C). Moreover, transfectionof 5′ppp-2′F RNA aptamers led to a strong induction of innate immuneRNA-sensing PRRs, including RIG-I, MDA-5, and PKR, which was notobserved upon treatment of the cells with staurosporine, a conventionalapoptosis-inducing drug (FIG. 2D). These data suggest that the 5′ppp-2′FRNA aptamer employs a unique mechanism to induce melanoma growthinhibition, apoptosis and innate immune activation as compared to aconventional pro-apoptotic agent.

The RIG-I-MAVS Signaling Pathway Regulates the Induction ofAnti-Melanoma Responses by 5′Ppp-2′F RNA Aptamers

Foreign, non-self RNAs are recognized by multiple RNA-sensing PRRs,including endosomal TLR3 and TLR7 and cytoplasmic RIG-I, MDA-5 and PKR.Direct cytoplasmic delivery of 5′ppp-2′F RNA aptamers by electroporationresults in similar growth inhibition of melanoma cells as compared toliposomal transfection (FIG. 2C). Furthermore, liposomal transfection of5′ppp-2′F RNA aptamers did not activate human TLR3 and TLR7 (FIGS. 3Aand 3B, respectively). These data suggest that 5′ppp-2′F RNA aptamersactivate cytoplasmic RNA-sensing PRRs rather than endosomal TLRs toinduce cell death of melanoma cells. To determine the cytoplasmic PRRresponsible for the recognition of 5′ppp-2′F RNA aptamers, wetransiently knocked-down the expression of cytoplasmic RNA-sensing PRRs,including RIG-I, MDA-5 and PKR and an essential mitochondrial adaptorfor RIG-I and MDA-5 signaling-induced apoptosis, MAVS, using specific5′OH siRNAs. Consecutive knockdown of PRRs and MAVS in WM266-4 cellssustained knockdown effect at the protein level until day 6post-transfection (FIG. 4A), which provided sufficient time for studyingthe cytotoxic effect of 5′ppp-2′F RNA transfection. Depletion of eitherRIG-I or MAVS significantly rescued the cells from 5′ppp-2′F RNA-inducedcytotoxicity (FIG. 4B) and reduced IFNβ production by human melanomacells transfected with 5′ppp-2′F RNA aptamers (FIG. 4C). Thus, RIG-I andMAVS are required for the recognition of 5′ppp-2′F RNA aptamers and thedownstream signal transduction, respectively, ultimately inducing celldeath and IFN expression. In contrast, knockdown of MDA-5 had no effecton cell viability, whereas depletion of PKR may even enhance thecytotoxic effect of 5′ppp-2′F RNA aptamers. An essential component ofsubstrates that are recognized by RIG-I is a 5′ppp. Dephosphorylation of5′ppp-2′F RNA aptamers, 1° F. and 9.14T10, partially prevented apoptosisand IFNβ production by human melanoma cells but did not completelyeliminate it, most likely because of inefficient dephosphorylation(FIGS. 4D and E). Therefore, we evaluated a chemically synthesizedversion of the 2′F 9.14T10 aptamer without 5′ppp (Syn9.14T10), andobserved that this synthetic aptamer completely lacked cytotoxic and IFNinduction activities. These observations further support the hypothesisthat RIG-I is the prominent cytoplasmic PRR recognizing 5′ppp-2′F RNAaptamers.

IFNβ-Dependent and Independent Mechanisms of 5′Ppp-2′F RNA-Induced CellDeath and Growth Inhibition of Human Melanoma Cells

IFNβ is a pleiotropic cytokine that can inhibit proliferation and inducecell death (Trinchieri (2010) J Exp Med 207: 2053-2063). It has a widerange of immune stimulatory activities including augmentation of Thelper type 1 (Thl) cell responses, upregulation of MHC class Imolecules, generation of natural killer (NK) cell- and T cell-mediatedcytotoxicity and anti-tumor activities including anti-proliferative,anti-angiogenic and pro-apoptotic effects (Trinchieri (2010) J Exp Med207: 2053-2063). To determine the contribution of IFNβ to 5′ppp-2′FRNA-induced melanoma cell death, cells were co-treated with B18R, avaccinia-virus-encoded decoy receptor for type I IFN to neutralize IFNβin the media and to abrogate autocrine/paracrine IFN signaling. Whileco-treatment with B18R only partially rescued 5′ppp-2′F 10F-transfectedmelanoma cells from cell death, it completely abolished the apoptosis ofmelanoma cells treated with either recombinant IFNβ or culturesupernatants isolated from melanoma cells transfected with 5′ppp-2′F 10F(FIG. 5A). The IFNβ-containing culture supernatants isolated from5′ppp-2′F 10F-transfected melanoma cells minimally affected the growthof normal non-melanocytic cells, such as human dermal fibroblasts (FIG.5A). Our data suggest that transfection of 5′ppp-2′F RNAs can inducegrowth inhibition and apoptosis of human melanoma cells through bothtype 1 IFN-dependent and -independent mechanisms, andautocrine/paracrine IFNβ can induce collateral growth inhibition ofotherwise untreated melanoma cells.

Melanoma, Prostate Cancer and Glioblastoma Cells are Highly Sensitive to5′Ppp-2′F RNA-Induced Cytotoxicity when Compared to Other Types of Cells

Next, we investigated whether 5′ppp-2′F RNA-induced cytotoxicity isspecific for human melanoma cells. While 5′ppp-2′F RNAs inhibited thegrowth of human melanoma cell lines (WM266-4, WM115, SK-MEL2, andMALME-3M), human prostate cancer cell lines (PC-3, DU145 and LNCaP) andhuman glioblastoma cell lines (LN-229, Xeno-43 and A-172) no significantcytotoxic effects of 5′ppp-2′F RNAs were observed after transfection ofother types of human cancer cells, including pancreatic cancer (Panc-1),cervical cancer (HeLa), breast cancer (Hs578T), fibrosarcoma (HT1080),ovarian cancer (SK-OV-3) and non-small cell lung cancer (NCI-H1838)(FIG. 5B). Furthermore, 5′ppp-2′F RNA transfection did not causesignificant cytotoxic effects in a variety of human non-malignant cellsincluding dermal fibroblasts, lung fibroblasts, colon epithelia cells,pancreatic ductal epithelial cells (HPDE), bone marrow stromal cells andPBMCs, whereas the growth of primary human melanocytes was inhibited by5′ppp-2′F RNA aptamer transfection. This result suggests thatmelanocytic cells and prostate cancer cells are much more sensitive to5′ppp-2′F RNA-induced cytotoxicity as compared to other types of cells.

The 2′F Modification Increases Anti-Cancer Activity, Innate ImmuneActivation and Nuclease Resistance of RIG-I-Activating 5′Ppp RNAs

2′OMe-modified RNAs have been widely described as being able to evadeinnate immune recognition by RNA-sensing PRRs (Robbins et al. (2007) MolTher 15: 1663-1669 and Sioud (2010) Methods Mol Biol 629: 387-394).However, the influence of 2′F modifications on PRR sensing is much lessclear; indeed, examples of both reduced and enhanced innate immunerecognition have been reported (Uzri and Gehrke (2009) J Virol 83:4174-418; Nallagatla and Bevilacqua (2008) RNA 14: 1201-1213; Hwang etal. (2012) Nucleic Acids Res 40: 2724-2733). In order to better dissectthe contribution of 2′-ribose modifications to 5′ppp-2′F RNA-inducedcytotoxicity, we established 5′ppp 10F RNAs with 2′OMe pyrimidine, 2′Fpyrimidine or unmodified pyrimidine (2′OH). Transfection of these 5′pppRNA variants into melanoma cells revealed that substituting 2′OH with2′OMe completely abolished the cytotoxicity and cytokine production,whereas 2′F-modified 5′ppp RNAs significantly increased the cytotoxicityand IFNβ and IL-8 production over 2-fold compared to unmodified 5′pppRNAs (FIGS. 6A and B). Transfection of 5′ppp-2′F 10F RNAs into humanmelanoma cells led to strong induction of cytokine production and growthinhibition, comparable to levels observed for the gold standardPRR-activating anti-cancer agent, polyI:C. Finally, unmodified 5′ppp 10FRNAs instantly degraded after exposure to serum, whereas 2′Fmodifications could render the 5′ppp 10F RNAs resistant to serumdegradation (FIG. 6C). Furthermore, 2′F modification improve cellularstability of 5′ppp ssRNAs compared to unmodified RNAs (FIG. 6D).Although 2′OMe modification could augment serum stability of 5′ppp RNAs,this RNA modification eliminated the anti-cancer activity and innateimmune activation of 5′ppp RNAs. Unlike the 2′OMe modification, the 2′Fmodification not only enhanced serum stability but also cancer celldeath and innate immune activation. Therefore, increasing nucleaseresistance of RNAs by the 2′F modification cannot be the sole mechanismof action for the enhancement of anti-cancer and innate immuneactivation of modified 5′ppp RNAs.

The ability of a dsRNA to induce cell cytotoxicity was also tested.Melanoma cells were transfected with 5′ppp-2′F dsRNA or 5′ppp-2′OH dsRNAand induction of apoptosis determined by Annexin V staining of thecells. As shown in FIG. 7, 5′ppp-2′F short dsRNA induced Annexin V andis killing the cells via apoptosis as demonstrated by increased 7-aminoactinomycin D staining as well. In contrast, the 5′ppp-2′OH short dsDNAwas not inducing apoptosis in the transfected cells.

Distance Between 5′Ppp and Stem Structure is Inversely Correlated withInduction of Growth Inhibition and IFN Expression by 5′Ppp-2′F ssRNAs inHuman Cancer Cells

The structure of RIG-I bound to 5′ppp RNA ligands suggested that boththe 5′ppp and dsRNA motif are required for the initial recognition ofRNA ligands by RIG-I (Jiang et al. (2011) Nature 479: 423-427). Schmidtet al. demonstrated that the minimal requirements of RIG-I-activating5′ppp-2′OH ssRNAs for IFN production by human monocytes were 5′ppp and a5- to 10-base-pair stem structure (Schmidt et al. (2009) Proc Natl AcadSci USA 106: 12067-12072). Therefore, we hypothesized that short5′ppp-2′F ssRNAs containing a single stem structure would induce IFNexpression and cytotoxic effects in human melanoma cells. To test thishypothesis, we generated three different types of 5′ppp-2′F ssRNAsshorter than 30 nucleotides and containing only a single predictedstem-loop structure, including 1) Motif 1: 29-mer ssRNA with a5′overhang stem-loop structure derived from the first 29 nucleotides of5′ppp-2′F 10F, 2) Motif 2: truncated variant of Motif 1 (23-mer) with ablunt-end stem-loop structure and 3) Motif 3: extended variant of Motif2 (30-mer) with an extended 3′ end to generate a 3′overhang stem-loopstructure (FIG. 8A and Table 1). Motif 1 treatment resulted insignificantly lower cytotoxicity (P=0.0392) and IFNβ induction(P=0.0172) in human melanoma cells compared to 1° F. treatment, whileMotif 2 treatment had 1.5- to 3-fold greater cytotoxicity (P=0.0039) and3- to 10-fold greater IFN induction (P=0.0329) in the cells compared to1° F. (FIGS. 8B and C). The difference between the cytotoxicity and IFNβinduction of Motif 3 and 10F treatments was not statisticallysignificant. These data suggest that the distance between the 5′ppp andthe internal stem structure is inversely correlated with recognition of5′ppp 2′F ssRNAs by RIG-I. To support this finding, we generated anextended variant of Motif 1 with a longer 5′overhang (Motif 1A; FIG.8A). As expected, treatment with Motif 1A resulted in a significantlydecreased cytotoxic effect (P=0.0409) and IFNβ production (P=0.0415) inhuman melanoma cells compared to treatment with Motif 1. Therefore, weconcluded that a short blunt-ended stem-loop ssRNA containing 5′ppp and2′F is a particularly potent immunostimulatory and anti-melanomatherapeutic RNA.

1.-27. (canceled)
 28. An RNA composition capable of inducing programmedcell death, cytokine production, or chemokine production in cells, thecomposition comprising a 5′ triphosphate, 2′ fluoro-modified pyrimidineRNA having at least 17 nucleotides and a double stranded portion of atleast 3 base pairings forming a nonlinear structure within 15nucleotides of the 5′ end of the RNA.
 29. The composition of claim 28,wherein the RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least 80%sequence identity to a member selected from the group consisting of SEQID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, SEQ ID NO:8, SEQ IDNO:9, SEQ ID NO:10, SEQ ID NO:11, SEQ ID NO:12, SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ IDNO:15, SEQ ID NO:16, and SEQ ID NO:17.
 30. The composition of claim 28,wherein the non-linear structure is a single stem loop structure. 31.The composition of claim 28, wherein the non-linear structure is amultiple stem loop structure.
 32. The composition of claim 28, whereinthe RNA is a single stranded RNA.
 33. The composition of claim 28,wherein the 2′ fluoro-modified pyrimidine includes at least one 2′fluoro-modified uridine.
 34. The composition of claim 28, wherein atleast 10% of the nucleotides contain a 2′ fluoro-modification.
 35. Thecomposition of claim 28 further comprising a cytoplasmic deliverycomposition.
 36. The composition of claim 35, wherein the cytoplasmicdelivery composition is selected from the group consisting of aliposome, synthetic polymer, cell-penetrating peptide, nanoparticle,viral particle, electroporation buffer, and nucleofection reagent.
 37. Amethod for inhibiting growth of cells, inducing programmed cell death,cytokine production, or chemokine production, the method comprisingdelivering to the cytoplasm of a cell a 5′ triphosphate, 2′fluoro-modified pyrimidine RNA composition comprising at least 17nucleotides and a double stranded portion of at least 3 base pairingsforming a nonlinear structure within 15 nucleotides of the 5′ end of theRNA.
 38. The method of claim 37, wherein the RNA is delivered to thecytoplasm via transfection, nucleofection, electroporation, a gene gun,or receptor-mediated endocytosis.
 39. The method of claim 37, whereinthe composition further comprises a cytoplasmic delivery composition.40. The method of claim 37, wherein the RNA comprises a nucleotidesequence having at least 80% sequence identity to a member selected fromthe group consisting of SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ IDNO:7, SEQ ID NO:8, SEQ ID NO:9, SEQ ID NO:10, SEQ ID NO:11, SEQ IDNO:12, SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:15, SEQ ID NO:16, and SEQ ID NO:17. 41.The method of claim 37, wherein the cell is selected from the groupconsisting of melanoma, brain cancer, prostate cancer, breast cancer,renal cancer, lung cancer, liver cancer, colorectal cancer, leukemia,lymphoma, and ovarian cancer cells.
 42. A method for inhibiting growthof cells, inducing programmed cell death, cytokine production, orchemokine production, the method comprising administering a 5′triphosphate, 2′ fluoro-modified pyrimidine RNA composition comprisingat least 17 nucleotides and a double stranded portion of at least 3 basepairings forming a nonlinear structure within 15 nucleotides of the 5′end of the RNA to a subject in need of such treatment.
 43. The method ofclaim 42, wherein the composition further comprises a cytoplasmicdelivery composition.
 44. The method of claim 42, wherein the RNA isdelivered to the cytoplasm of a cell of the subject.
 45. The method ofclaim 44, wherein the cell is selected from the group consisting ofmelanoma, brain cancer, prostate cancer, breast cancer, renal cancer,lung cancer, liver cancer, colorectal cancer, leukemia, lymphoma, andovarian cancer cells.
 46. The method of claim 44, the RNA is deliveredto the cytoplasm via transfection, nucleofection, electroporation, agene gun, or receptor-mediated endocytosis.
 47. The method of claim 42,wherein the RNA comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least 80%sequence identity to a member selected from the group consisting of SEQID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, SEQ ID NO:8, SEQ IDNO:9, SEQ ID NO:10, SEQ ID NO:11, SEQ ID NO:12, SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ IDNO:15, SEQ ID NO:16, and SEQ ID NO:17.